http://apworldipedia.com/index.php?action=history&feed=atom&title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_ExpansionKey Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion - Revision history2026-10-25T11:03:54ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.41.1http://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4643&oldid=prevJhenderson at 15:03, 18 December 20172017-12-18T15:03:37Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of art legitimizing states are: </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of art legitimizing states are: </div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Ottoman miniature painting''' Influenced by Persian traditions, Ottoman artists developed a rich tradition of courtly art known as miniature paining. As one of the "arts of the book" (along with calligraphy), miniature painting was used to illustrate and embellish government sponsored manuscripts. While earlier Persian paintings depicted mythical heroes and images of paradise, Ottomans used this art to emphasize their imperial conquests. After his defeat of Constantinople in 1453, for example, Mehmed II adopted visual art to perpetuate his "image as a world conqueror" and identify his capture of the city with some of the most important achievements of past conquests, particularly those of Alexander the Great. Mehmet built an imperial scriptorium and solicited Renaissance artists from Italy to come and share their expertise. Ottoman miniature painting reached its peak in the 16th century when [[File:康熙坐像.jpg|left|thumb|Emperor Kangxi with a book representing a hallmark of Confucian legitimacy: scholarship.]]the empire created an official post of court historian. Presiding over a team of writers, calligraphers, illustrators and miniaturists, the court historian produced elegant works of Ottoman imperial history. By the 18th century, when Ottoman conquests came to an end, miniature painting focused on portraits of sultans and illustrations of imperial genealogies. A few of them <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">trace </del>the sultans' genealogy back through many of the most significant prophets to Adam in the Garden of Eden. Regardless of their topical changes, miniature painting was used by the Ottoman government to reinforce their authority and legitimacy. <ref>''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire,"Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters, (2010) , pp. 265-270. </ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Ottoman miniature painting''' Influenced by Persian traditions, Ottoman artists developed a rich tradition of courtly art known as miniature paining. As one of the "arts of the book" (along with calligraphy), miniature painting was used to illustrate and embellish government sponsored manuscripts. While earlier Persian paintings depicted mythical heroes and images of paradise, Ottomans used this art to emphasize their imperial conquests. After his defeat of Constantinople in 1453, for example, Mehmed II adopted visual art to perpetuate his "image as a world conqueror" and identify his capture of the city with some of the most important achievements of past conquests, particularly those of Alexander the Great. Mehmet built an imperial scriptorium and solicited Renaissance artists from Italy to come and share their expertise. Ottoman miniature painting reached its peak in the 16th century when [[File:康熙坐像.jpg|left|thumb|Emperor Kangxi with a book representing a hallmark of Confucian legitimacy: scholarship.]]the empire created an official post of court historian. Presiding over a team of writers, calligraphers, illustrators and miniaturists, the court historian produced elegant works of Ottoman imperial history. By the 18th century, when Ottoman conquests came to an end, miniature painting focused on portraits of sultans and illustrations of imperial genealogies. A few of them <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">traced </ins>the sultans' genealogy back through many of the most significant prophets to Adam in the Garden of Eden. Regardless of their topical changes, miniature painting was used by the Ottoman government to reinforce their authority and legitimacy. <ref>''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire,"Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters, (2010) , pp. 265-270. </ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td></tr>
</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4642&oldid=prevJhenderson at 14:43, 18 December 20172017-12-18T14:43:36Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::Historians are not in total agreement about the purpose of these bloody pageants. Some emphasize that they represent the use of terror and fear to coerce obedience to the state. Others demonstrate how the sacrifices, on which many aspects of Aztec civilization depended, maintained the power of the priests and elites classes who carried them out. They seemed also to have brought cohesiveness to the multi-ethnic and tribal components of the expanding empire. The sacrifices at the capital city of Tenochtitlan were “intended to win the loyalty of a relatively small target group, the young men who formed the core of the Aztec army.” <ref>''Empires'', (2009) p. 309.</ref>. The recognition and rewarding of young warriors provided a cohesive bond among men from varied backgrounds that minimized ethnic and kinship identities. In doing so, the sacrifices brought greater unity and loyalty to the state. </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::Historians are not in total agreement about the purpose of these bloody pageants. Some emphasize that they represent the use of terror and fear to coerce obedience to the state. Others demonstrate how the sacrifices, on which many aspects of Aztec civilization depended, maintained the power of the priests and elites classes who carried them out. They seemed also to have brought cohesiveness to the multi-ethnic and tribal components of the expanding empire. The sacrifices at the capital city of Tenochtitlan were “intended to win the loyalty of a relatively small target group, the young men who formed the core of the Aztec army.” <ref>''Empires'', (2009) p. 309.</ref>. The recognition and rewarding of young warriors provided a cohesive bond among men from varied backgrounds that minimized ethnic and kinship identities. In doing so, the sacrifices brought greater unity and loyalty to the state. </div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Chinese emperor's performance of Confucian rituals''' Confucianism was always deeply concerned with rituals, and during the Tang dynasty leaders adapted Confucian rituals to legitimize their rule. Later, when the foreign Manchus established the Qing dynasty, they appropriated these rituals in an effort to claim the Mandate of Heaven and to elevate the importance of the emperor. Many Confucian rituals involved the imperial family. In fact, it is only a slight exaggeration to say that established rituals proscribed most everything the emperor did. For example, in the beginning of the spring the Emperor participated in an elaborate ceremony in which he plowed the first furrow of earth and planted the first seed in front of the Temple of Agriculture. <ref>Of Body and Brush: Grand Sacrifice as Text/Performance in Eighteenth-Century China, Angela Zito (1997) p.26.</ref> No farm work could begin until the emperor completed this ritual. This ceremonial act procured the good will of the gods, ensured a plentiful harvest, and linked the vigor of Chinese civilization to the actions of the emperor. <br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Chinese emperor's performance of Confucian rituals''' Confucianism was always deeply concerned with rituals, and during the Tang dynasty leaders adapted Confucian rituals to legitimize their rule. Later, when the foreign Manchus established the Qing dynasty, they appropriated these rituals in an effort to claim the Mandate of Heaven and to elevate the importance of the emperor. Many Confucian rituals involved the imperial family. In fact, it is only a slight exaggeration to say that established rituals proscribed most everything the emperor did. For example, in the beginning of the spring the Emperor participated in an elaborate ceremony in which he plowed the first furrow of earth and planted the first seed in front of the Temple of Agriculture. <ref>Of Body and Brush: Grand Sacrifice as Text/Performance in Eighteenth-Century China, Angela Zito (1997) p.26.</ref> No farm work could begin until the emperor completed this ritual. This ceremonial act procured the good will of the gods, ensured a plentiful harvest, and linked the vigor of Chinese civilization to the actions of the emperor<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">. The Qing, who were not Chinese but Manchus, adopted this Confucian ritual to connect themselves to the tradition of Chinese emperors who preceded them. It was an act of legitimization</ins>. <br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::There were other ways the ruling dynasty [[File:Ottomans_conquering_the_Limassol_Castle.png|thumb|An Ottoman miniature painting showing the fall of Limassol Castle on the island of Cypress in 1538.]]used Confucian ritual to legitimize their rule. The sacrifices to Heaven, performed in the northern suburbs of the capital during the summer solstice and in the southern during the summer solstice, grew to be the most important <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">ritual</del>. Many rituals of ancestor worship were absorbed into the sacrifices made to Heaven thus creating a close link between the spirits of the ancestors and Heaven. In fact, the Emperor's ancestors became a link between Heaven and the imperial family. By publicly performing these rituals twice a year, the Emperor was reaffirming the Mandate of Heaven. <ref>''Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty," Howard J. Wechsler, (1985) , pp. 107-122. </ref><span id="art"></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::There were other ways the ruling dynasty [[File:Ottomans_conquering_the_Limassol_Castle.png|thumb|An Ottoman miniature painting showing the fall of Limassol Castle on the island of Cypress in 1538.]]used Confucian ritual to legitimize their rule. The sacrifices to Heaven, performed in the northern suburbs of the capital during the summer solstice and in the southern during the summer solstice, grew to be the most important <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">rituals</ins>. Many rituals of ancestor worship were absorbed into the sacrifices made to Heaven thus creating a close link between the spirits of the ancestors and Heaven. In fact, the Emperor's ancestors became a link between Heaven and the imperial family. By publicly performing these rituals twice a year, the Emperor was reaffirming the Mandate of Heaven. <ref>''Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty," Howard J. Wechsler, (1985) , pp. 107-122. </ref><span id="art"></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4641&oldid=prevJhenderson at 14:34, 18 December 20172017-12-18T14:34:05Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of art legitimizing states are: </div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of art legitimizing states are: </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Ottoman miniature painting''' Influenced by Persian traditions, Ottoman artists <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">continued and </del>developed a rich tradition of courtly art known as miniature paining. As one of the "arts of the book" (along with calligraphy), miniature painting was used to illustrate and embellish government sponsored manuscripts. While earlier Persian paintings depicted mythical heroes and images of paradise, Ottomans used this art to emphasize their imperial conquests. After his defeat of Constantinople in 1453, for example, Mehmed II adopted visual art to perpetuate his "image as a world conqueror" and identify his capture of the city with some of the most important achievements of past conquests, particularly those of Alexander the Great. Mehmet built an imperial scriptorium and solicited Renaissance artists from Italy to come and share their expertise. Ottoman miniature painting reached its peak in the 16th century when [[File:康熙坐像.jpg|left|thumb|Emperor Kangxi with a book representing a hallmark of Confucian legitimacy: scholarship.]]the empire created an official post of court historian. Presiding over a team of writers, calligraphers, illustrators and miniaturists, the court historian produced elegant works of Ottoman imperial history. By the 18th century, when Ottoman conquests came to an end, miniature painting focused on portraits of sultans and illustrations of imperial genealogies. A few of them trace the sultans genealogy back through many of the most significant prophets to Adam in the Garden of Eden. Regardless of their topical changes, miniature painting was used by the Ottoman government to reinforce their authority and legitimacy. <ref>''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire,"Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters, (2010) , pp. 265-270. </ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Ottoman miniature painting''' Influenced by Persian traditions, Ottoman artists developed a rich tradition of courtly art known as miniature paining. As one of the "arts of the book" (along with calligraphy), miniature painting was used to illustrate and embellish government sponsored manuscripts. While earlier Persian paintings depicted mythical heroes and images of paradise, Ottomans used this art to emphasize their imperial conquests. After his defeat of Constantinople in 1453, for example, Mehmed II adopted visual art to perpetuate his "image as a world conqueror" and identify his capture of the city with some of the most important achievements of past conquests, particularly those of Alexander the Great. Mehmet built an imperial scriptorium and solicited Renaissance artists from Italy to come and share their expertise. Ottoman miniature painting reached its peak in the 16th century when [[File:康熙坐像.jpg|left|thumb|Emperor Kangxi with a book representing a hallmark of Confucian legitimacy: scholarship.]]the empire created an official post of court historian. Presiding over a team of writers, calligraphers, illustrators and miniaturists, the court historian produced elegant works of Ottoman imperial history. By the 18th century, when Ottoman conquests came to an end, miniature painting focused on portraits of sultans and illustrations of imperial genealogies. A few of them trace the sultans<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">' </ins>genealogy back through many of the most significant prophets to Adam in the Garden of Eden. Regardless of their topical changes, miniature painting was used by the Ottoman government to reinforce their authority and legitimacy. <ref>''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire,"Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters, (2010) , pp. 265-270. </ref></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td></tr>
</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4567&oldid=prevJhenderson at 18:30, 3 May 20172017-05-03T18:30:26Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|<div align="left">'''Augustus of Prima Porta.''' When Caesar Augustus came to power he was welcomed by the monarchists but rejected by the conservative republicans who wanted power to remain with the traditional patrician families. Augustus commissioned this work of art to assuage the fears of those republicans who believed he was a warmonger trying to consolidate his own power at the expense of the old republic. Thus he is shown raising his hand like a strong leader but not brandishing a sword. He is poised for movement but not in a threatening or aggressive way. On his breastplate is the scene of the Parthians surrendering to Rome, one of Augustus' most important military achievements that overturned a previous humiliation by the Parthians. But this was a necessary military endeavor; the gods look on approvingly, suggesting that Augustus carries out their will. Overall this statue of political propaganda showed Augustus as he wanted to be known rather than how he actually was. </div></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Statue-Augustus.jpg|<div align="left">'''Augustus of Prima Porta.''' When Caesar Augustus came to power he was welcomed by the monarchists but rejected by the conservative republicans who wanted power to remain with the traditional patrician families. Augustus commissioned this work of art to assuage the fears of those republicans who believed he was a warmonger trying to consolidate his own power at the expense of the old republic. Thus he is shown raising his hand like a strong leader but not brandishing a sword. He is poised for movement but not in a threatening or aggressive way. On his breastplate is the scene of the Parthians surrendering to Rome, one of Augustus' most important military achievements that overturned a previous humiliation by the Parthians. But this was a necessary military endeavor; the gods look on approvingly, suggesting that Augustus carries out their will. Overall this statue of political propaganda showed Augustus as he wanted to be known rather than how he actually was. </div></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Qing Bodhisattva.jpg|<div align="left">'''The Qianlong Emperor as the Bodhisattva Mafijusrt.''' During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796) the Qing dynasty expanded the borders of China <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">father </del>than they had ever been before. China also became much more multi-cultural than it had ever been. The Qianlong Emperor used imperial portraits to represent himself to each region in the culture and dress of that region. To the ethnic Chinese (the Han) he had himself painted as a great scholar and promoter of Chinese values;<ref>http://decodedpast.com/tibetan-buddhism-politics-qing-dynasty/14473</ref> to the Mongols of Central Asia, he was depicted as a traditional warrior of the steppes. <ref>http://www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/html/emperors/</ref> The portrait above shows him pictured as the best known bodhisattva of Tibetan Buddhism, surrounded by Buddhist symbols. For example, he "raises his right hand in the gesture of argument while supporting the wheel of the law in his left. He also holds two stems of lotus blossoms, which serve as platforms for a sutra and a sword, the attributes of Manjusri. He is pictured among 108 deities . . . who represent his Buddhist lineage." <ref>''Worshiping the Ancestors: Chinese Commemorative Portraits'', Jan Stuart and Evelyn Sakakida Rawski (2001), portrait 119. </ref> </div></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Qing Bodhisattva.jpg|<div align="left">'''The Qianlong Emperor as the Bodhisattva Mafijusrt.''' During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796) the Qing dynasty expanded the borders of China <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">farther </ins>than they had ever been before. China also became much more multi-cultural than it had ever been. The Qianlong Emperor used imperial portraits to represent himself to each region in the culture and dress of that region. To the ethnic Chinese (the Han) he had himself painted as a great scholar and promoter of Chinese values;<ref>http://decodedpast.com/tibetan-buddhism-politics-qing-dynasty/14473</ref> to the Mongols of Central Asia, he was depicted as a traditional warrior of the steppes. <ref>http://www.learn.columbia.edu/nanxuntu/html/emperors/</ref> The portrait above shows him pictured as the best known bodhisattva of Tibetan Buddhism, surrounded by Buddhist symbols. For example, he "raises his right hand in the gesture of argument while supporting the wheel of the law in his left. He also holds two stems of lotus blossoms, which serve as platforms for a sutra and a sword, the attributes of Manjusri. He is pictured among 108 deities . . . who represent his Buddhist lineage." <ref>''Worshiping the Ancestors: Chinese Commemorative Portraits'', Jan Stuart and Evelyn Sakakida Rawski (2001), portrait 119. </ref> </div></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4561&oldid=prevJhenderson at 18:43, 30 April 20172017-04-30T18:43:58Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::There were other ways the ruling dynasty [[File:Ottomans_conquering_the_Limassol_Castle.png|thumb|An Ottoman miniature painting showing the fall of Limassol Castle on the island of Cypress in 1538.]]used Confucian ritual to legitimize their rule. The sacrifices to Heaven, performed in the northern suburbs of the capital during the summer solstice and in the southern during the summer solstice, grew to be the most important ritual. Many rituals of ancestor worship were absorbed into the sacrifices made to Heaven thus creating a close link between the spirits of the ancestors and Heaven. In fact, the Emperor's ancestors became a link between Heaven and the imperial family. By publicly performing these rituals twice a year, the Emperor was reaffirming the Mandate of Heaven. <ref>''Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty," Howard J. Wechsler, (1985) , pp. 107-122. </ref></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::There were other ways the ruling dynasty [[File:Ottomans_conquering_the_Limassol_Castle.png|thumb|An Ottoman miniature painting showing the fall of Limassol Castle on the island of Cypress in 1538.]]used Confucian ritual to legitimize their rule. The sacrifices to Heaven, performed in the northern suburbs of the capital during the summer solstice and in the southern during the summer solstice, grew to be the most important ritual. Many rituals of ancestor worship were absorbed into the sacrifices made to Heaven thus creating a close link between the spirits of the ancestors and Heaven. In fact, the Emperor's ancestors became a link between Heaven and the imperial family. By publicly performing these rituals twice a year, the Emperor was reaffirming the Mandate of Heaven. <ref>''Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty," Howard J. Wechsler, (1985) , pp. 107-122. </ref<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">><span id="art"</ins>></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4560&oldid=prevJhenderson at 18:29, 30 April 20172017-04-30T18:29:20Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:'''I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.''' <br><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:'''I. Rulers used a variety of methods to legitimize and consolidate their power.''' <br><br></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::A. An individual’s claim to have [[File:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg|right|thumb]]authority over other people is not something we humans take for granted. We need a reason to obey. Coercion and force have long been a part of political power, but we yield to them out of fear or for pragmatic reasons rather than our belief that they constitute legitimate reasons for our consent. A state has '''political legitimacy''' when subjects choose to recognize its authority because it has some intrinsic validating quality. Notions used by states to legitimize their rule in this period (1450-1750) are examples of important continuities of state-building we have seen since the River Valley Civilizations in Period I. Religion and art continued to be closely connected with the political power of states. <br><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::A. An individual’s claim to have [[File:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg|right|thumb]]authority over other people is not something we humans take for granted. We need a reason to obey. Coercion and force have long been a part of political power, but we yield to them out of fear or for pragmatic reasons rather than our belief that they constitute legitimate reasons for our consent. A state has '''political legitimacy''' when subjects choose to recognize its authority because it has some intrinsic validating quality. Notions used by states to legitimize their rule in this period (1450-1750) are examples of important continuities of state-building we have seen since the River Valley Civilizations in Period I. Religion and art continued to be closely connected with the political power of states. <br><br<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">><span id="religion"></span</ins>> </div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of religious ideas legitimizing states are: <br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::Some examples of religious ideas legitimizing states are: <br></div></td></tr>
</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4531&oldid=prevJhenderson at 19:35, 19 April 20172017-04-19T19:35:55Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior. <ref>http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-world-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf</ref><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior. <ref>http://media.collegeboard.com/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-world-history-course-and-exam-description.pdf</ref<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">> <span id="religion_legitimization"></span</ins>> <br></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4504&oldid=prevJhenderson: /* State-Building and Monumental Architecture */2017-01-17T14:14:22Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">State-Building and Monumental Architecture</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><gallery mode="packed" widths=180px heights=180px perrow=4></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><gallery mode="packed" widths=180px heights=180px perrow=4></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Color_glaze_gateway_Puotuo_Zongcheng.jpg|<div align="<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">left</del>"><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">As a member of the '''Hanseatic League''', the northern Russian city of '''Novgorod''' was vital in connecting European merchants with their Arab and Byzantine counterparts. Its surrounding marshes and thick forests protected it from the Mongol conquests allowing its importance for the coveted trade in fine furs to be uninterrupted. </del></div> </div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Color_glaze_gateway_Puotuo_Zongcheng.jpg|<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Putuo Zongcheng temple</ins><div align="<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">center</ins>"> </div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Versailles_chateau.jpg|<div align="<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">left</del>">|<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In southeast Asia '''Malacca''' became an important city in the spice trade. It was a collection point for spices grown on tiny islands across Indonesia. In Malacca they were packaged and sold in bulk on the Indian Ocean. The city's location on the straits of Malacca allowed it to collect tolls and control passage. </del> </div></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Versailles_chateau.jpg|<div align="<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">center</ins>">|<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Versailles </ins> </div></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Moscow_StBasilCathedral_d18.jpg|<div align="<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">left</del>"><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The location of </del>'<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">''Timbuktu''' on the southern rim of the Sahara Desert raised its importance for trans-Saharan caravan trade. It became an exchange point for west African gold and north African salt. Because of the trade in books, the city also became an important city for Islamic scholarship and education. </del></div></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Moscow_StBasilCathedral_d18.jpg|<div align="<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">center</ins>"><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">St. Basil</ins>'<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">s Basilica</ins></div></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Taj_Mahal_N-UP-A28-a.jpg|<div align="<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">left</del>"><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">'''Hangzhou''' was located near China's southern coast and on the '''Grand Canal''' which connected it across 1000 kilometers to Beijing. It was a departure point for Chinese goods to Korea, Japan, southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean trade network. It became the capital of China during the Southern Song Dynasty.</del></div></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>File:Taj_Mahal_N-UP-A28-a.jpg|<div align="<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">center</ins>"><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The Taj Mahal</ins></div></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4501&oldid=prevJhenderson at 19:32, 5 January 20172017-01-05T19:32:56Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::'''Manchus and their Chinese subjects''' As mentioned above, the Qing dynasty expanded Chinese territory larger than it ever had been before and ruled a population of 450 million people. <ref>Empires and Bureaucracy in World History: From Late Antiquity to the Twentieth Century, Peter Crooks, Timothy H. Parsons (2016) p. 33. </ref> Unlike previous Chinese dynasties, the Qing did not impose Chinese language or culture over their subjects and thought of China as just one part of a larger Manchu empire. <ref> ''Voyages in World History'', Valerie Hansen, Kenneth R. Curtis (2016) p. 596.</ref> They adopted a policy of "ruling different people differently," allowing local languages, customs, and in some cases, permitting local leaders to maintain leadership positions. Some groups had more privileges than others. Manchus, of course, were the most favored group but Chinese were allowed to take governing posts in the Confucian bureaucracy along with Manchus. The highest point to which a Chinese civil servant could rise was an executive position known as a "grand secretary." These administrators had no policy making power; however, they served as channels of communication "by ratifying, and forwarding 'memorials,' reports sent to the emperor from other central and field offices." <ref> ''China's Last Empire: The Great Qing'', William T. Rowe (2010) p. 34. </ref> The highest central administrative positions in Beijing, of course, were reserved for Manchus. Allowing Chinese to earn positions in the bureaucracy through civil service examinations rendered Manchu rule more acceptable for Chinese. And to prevent Chinese from dominating the bureaucracy, it was much easier for Manchus to gain appointments and rise through the ranks.<br><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::'''Manchus and their Chinese subjects''' As mentioned above, the Qing dynasty expanded Chinese territory larger than it ever had been before and ruled a population of 450 million people. <ref>Empires and Bureaucracy in World History: From Late Antiquity to the Twentieth Century, Peter Crooks, Timothy H. Parsons (2016) p. 33. </ref> Unlike previous Chinese dynasties, the Qing did not impose Chinese language or culture over their subjects and thought of China as just one part of a larger Manchu empire. <ref> ''Voyages in World History'', Valerie Hansen, Kenneth R. Curtis (2016) p. 596.</ref> They adopted a policy of "ruling different people differently," allowing local languages, customs, and in some cases, permitting local leaders to maintain leadership positions. Some groups had more privileges than others. Manchus, of course, were the most favored group but Chinese were allowed to take governing posts in the Confucian bureaucracy along with Manchus. The highest point to which a Chinese civil servant could rise was an executive position known as a "grand secretary." These administrators had no policy making power; however, they served as channels of communication "by ratifying, and forwarding 'memorials,' reports sent to the emperor from other central and field offices." <ref> ''China's Last Empire: The Great Qing'', William T. Rowe (2010) p. 34. </ref> The highest central administrative positions in Beijing, of course, were reserved for Manchus. Allowing Chinese to earn positions in the bureaucracy through civil service examinations rendered Manchu rule more acceptable for Chinese. And to prevent Chinese from dominating the bureaucracy, it was much easier for Manchus to gain appointments and rise through the ranks.<br><br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::'''Spanish America and the República de Indios''' In colonial America, Spanish administrators sought to adapt and impose the social structure of Iberia. Back home, society was organized into large corporate groups with different levels of rights and privileges adhering to each group rather than to individuals. In the New World the Spanish likewise divided the population into two primary groups. The first <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">groups </del>was the ''república de espanoles'' comprised of all Iberian born people, Spanish creoles, and anyone else of mixed Spanish race. The other group was the ''república de indios'' made up of the non mestizo indigenous population. <ref>Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, vol 1. John Michael Francis (2006) pp. 901-902.</ref><br><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:::'''Spanish America and the República de Indios''' In colonial America, Spanish administrators sought to adapt and impose the social structure of Iberia. Back home, society was organized into large corporate groups with different levels of rights and privileges adhering to each group rather than to individuals. In the New World the Spanish likewise divided the population into two primary groups. The first <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">group </ins>was the ''república de espanoles'' comprised of all Iberian born people, Spanish creoles, and anyone else of mixed Spanish race. The other group was the ''república de indios'' made up of the non mestizo indigenous population. <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">This separation was initially made to protect indigenous people from the harness of the Spaniards; <ref> Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala, Fourth Edition: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500-1839, W. George Lovell (2015). </ref> they were divided into independent communities ruled by their own elites, and they enjoyed their own separate system of courts and laws. The system failed because of Spanish demand for indigenous labor. ''República de Indios'' were required to supply labor through the ''mita'' system to American silver mines. The became the target of the labor draft in Mexico known as the ''repartimiento'' which supplied labor to commercial farms, mines, and select private enterprises. Their required tribute payments became an important source of revenue for the Spanish colonial governments. The continued flow of people between the ''república de espanoles'' and the ''república de indios'' eventually blurred their distinctive identities. </ins><ref>Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia, vol 1. John Michael Francis (2006) pp. 901-902.</ref><br><br></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhendersonhttp://apworldipedia.com/index.php?title=Key_Concept_4.3_State_Consolidation_and_Imperial_Expansion&diff=4500&oldid=prevJhenderson at 04:41, 5 January 20172017-01-05T04:41:05Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>::*'''Qing imperial portraits''' We saw above how important rituals were to the Chinese imperial court. During the Qing dynasty these ceremonies included the use of art. Imperial portraits of emperors adorned many of the palaces inside the Forbidden City and were an important part of funeral rituals when an emperor died. We see vestiges of ancestor veneration in the fact that some emperors performed ceremonies before portraits of previous leaders of their dynasty and even kowtowed to these portraits. <ref>''The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Evelyn S. Rawski, (1998) , p. 286. </ref> In the public sphere, imperial portraits were utilized to enhance the legitimacy of the emperor. Portraits of emperor Kangxi, for example, often show him surrounded by books or holding a book in his hands, a <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">presentation </del>that serves the imperial Confucian ideology that scholarship and command of knowledge merit legitimacy for an emperor. <ref>''Imperial Illusions: Crossing Pictorial Boundaries in the Qing Palaces," Kristina Kleutghen, (2015) , p. 50. </ref> Legitimacy was a crucial factor for Emperor Kangxi. As a Manchu he needed to gain respect from ethnic Chinese; promoting himself as an accomplished scholar helped win the scholar bureaucrats and gain the Mandate of Heaven in the eyes of many Chinese. <br><br><br><br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By Evelyn S. Rawski, (1998) , p. 286. </ref> In the public sphere, imperial portraits were utilized to enhance the legitimacy of the emperor. Portraits of emperor Kangxi, for example, often show him surrounded by books or holding a book in his hands, a <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">representation </ins>that serves the imperial Confucian ideology that scholarship and command of knowledge merit legitimacy for an emperor. <ref>''Imperial Illusions: Crossing Pictorial Boundaries in the Qing Palaces," Kristina Kleutghen, (2015) , p. 50. </ref> Legitimacy was a crucial factor for Emperor Kangxi. As a Manchu he needed to gain respect from ethnic Chinese; promoting himself as an accomplished scholar helped win the scholar bureaucrats and gain the Mandate of Heaven in the eyes of many Chinese. <br><br><br><br></div></td></tr>
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</table>Jhenderson